Projected impact of grid mix changes for LAWDP. 1). This was clearly illustrated in the case of LADWP's transitioning away from coal-based electricity towards more renewable sources. Agency publications (MWD 2009, CDWR 2011) provided pumping plant locations that were geocoded by cross-referencing the estimated X, Y coordinates in Google Maps. 8 and assumed average efficiency factors obtained from the AHRI ( http://www.ahrinet.org/) for the water heaters considered in this study. For supplies typically transported over short distances, such as recycled water and desalted groundwater, the treatment phase comprises the largest portion of the footprint. Technology warming potentials are calculated as a function of methane emission rate (%) at two time horizons (20 and 100 years) applying the AR5 calculation method and fleet implementation scenario. 8 assumed that natural gas power plants receive their fuel directly from the transmission system (large, long‐distance pipelines) and excluded emissions of CH4 associated with the distribution loss from smaller, local pipelines (0.3%), resulting in an overall CH4 emission rate of 2.1% (instead of 2.4%) associated with generating electricity using natural gas. Find support for a specific problem on the support section of our website. regionalized averages) to estimate the carbon footprint of localized water supply, which has been the predominant approach (Filion et al 2004, Stokes and Horvath 2011, Sanders and Webber 2012, Mo et al 2014) to calculating carbon footprints of water supplies in the US. This approach has implications not only for water and electric utilities but also for local entities of all kinds as they consider how best to transition to a lower carbon future. Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Energy factors for these water heaters were obtained from the Air‐conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI, http://www.ahrinet.org/) that provided information on 5478 AHRI‐certified water heaters as of December 2015. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate change 2001: the scientific basis. Life cycle assessment of domestic heat pump hot water systems in Australia. You do not need to reset your password if you login via Athens or an Institutional login. 32, a study that worked closely with industry to measure emissions from various component processes of shale gas development. Authors assigned transport energy intensity of State Water Project East and treatment energy intensity of the Weymouth treatment plant based upon pipeline infrastructure location. Generation profile is based upon the annual electricity (kwh) used for water pumping/conveyance by the CRA and SWP. But upstream emissions can be significant for infrastructure sectors, such as transportation (Chester and Horvath 2009). 8 (3.1 kg‐CH4 MWh−1), use the heat rate (efficiency) of a natural gas power plant applied by Alvarez et al. No, A J Fang et al 2015 Environ. This study uses a spatially explicit LCA approach to measure the energy and emissions intensity of the water supply infrastructure for two Southern California utilities (LADWP and IEUA). This builds on work by Wilkinson (2000, 2007) who found that differences across water sources stem primarily from the varying pumping, treatment, and distribution processes required. Climate change and ongoing drought have only exacerbated threats to securing future supply, both for the state's vital agriculture sector as well as its growing urban centers. In this study, we have not explicitly modeled the use of heat pump water heaters powered by electricity from renewable sources, but these obviously would have far lower GHG emissions yet.

Finally, by applying the efficiency factor of a tankless natural gas water heater (0.99), we obtain the CH4 emission factor of 2.60 kg‐CH4 GJ−1. Most of the water heaters in the U.S. households have storage tanks (98% in 2009), although tankless water heaters have shown higher energy use efficiencies and may potentially help reduce household energy expenditure as well as GHG emissions associated with water heating. This approach enables one to assess the importance of localized, regionally-specific emissions factors when quantifying the carbon footprinting of utilities and associated grid mixes. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI. those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publisher and the editor(s). Under the base efficiency condition, the time‐integrated radiative forcing due to CH4 and CO2 emissions associated with heating water with a storage natural gas water heater (which is the most common way of heating water in the U.S.) was greater than that with a heat pump water heater powered by electricity from coal across all time scales considered in this study (up to 100 years), regardless of the method of radiative forcing calculation (AR3, AR4, or AR5) or implementation scenario (pulse, service life, or fleet conversion) (Fig. 8 for the electricity generation scenario were 3.1 kg‐CH4 MWh−1 and 397 kg‐CO2 MWh−1 for a combined cycle natural gas power plant, and 0.65 kg‐CH4 MWh−1 and 814 kg‐CO2 MWh−1 for a supercritical pulverized coal power plant. kg CO. 2 /GJ energy in petrol) with activity data (e.g. Optimal decarbonization pathways for urban residential building energy services. potable water), while acknowledging that recycled water is currently not utilized for direct potable water reuse.

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